Talk Therapy as a Treatment Option for Phobias

Talk Therapy as a Treatment Option for Phobias Phobias Treatment Print Talk Therapy as a Treatment Option for Phobias By Lisa Fritscher Lisa Fritscher is a freelance writer and editor with a deep interest in phobias and other mental health topics. Learn about our editorial policy Lisa Fritscher Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on June 05, 2017 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on September 19, 2019 Tom Merton / Getty Images More in Phobias Treatment Causes Symptoms and Diagnosis Types Talk therapy is one of the most common treatment options for phobias, although the specifics will vary according to the client’s needs and the therapist’s school of thought. What Is Talk Therapy? Talk therapy, also known as psychotherapy, is based on the core idea that talking about the things that are bothering you can help clarify them and put them in perspective. Some talk therapists follow a specific school of thought, such as cognitive theory or behaviorism. Others use a more eclectic approach, drawing techniques and principles from several different theories. For specific phobias, a mental health professional (like a psychologist or psychiatrist) may use a combination of cognitive and behavioral strategies that includes exposure to the feared object or situation in their treatment plan.   Effectiveness of Talk Therapy vs. Medication Therapy There is an age-old debate in the mental health community regarding the usefulness of talk therapy as opposed to medication therapy. According to the medical model, mental disorders are the result of physiological causes and should be treated by medication, surgery, or other medical processes. Proponents of talk therapy believe that mental disorders are largely based on reactions to one’s environment. Therefore, they can be treated through discussion, resolution of conflict, behavioral changes, and changes in thinking. Today, most members of the mental health community feel that the truth lies somewhere in the middle. Some conditions may be caused by physiological changes, while others are the result of conflict and unhealthy reactions. Most issues are based on a combination of factors. Many therapists consider both medical and talk therapy solutions when devising a treatment plan. Goals of Therapy The ultimate goal of any type of therapy is to help the client deal more successfully with a disorder or a situation. The specific treatment goals depend on the individual client, the therapist’s theories, and the situation at hand. The goal may be concrete, such as quitting smoking, or more abstract, such as anger management. When talk therapy is used for phobia treatment, there are generally two goals. One is to help the client overcome the fear. The second goal is to help the client learn to manage any remaining fear  so that he or she can live a functional life. Some forms of talk therapy have a third goal. In psychoanalysis and related therapies, the goal is to discover and resolve the underlying conflict that caused the phobia or other disorder. In interpersonal therapies, the goal is to resolve problems in interpersonal relationships that have resulted from or contributed to the phobia or other disorder. Find Help With the 9 Best Online Therapy Programs Progression of Talk Therapy Talk therapy begins with an initial appointment, often referred to as an intake interview. During this appointment, the client will describe what brings him or her to therapy. This is known as the presenting problem. The therapist will then ask questions to help clarify the nature of the problem, and its duration and severity. He will also try to determine the client’s goals for therapy. By the end of the first session, the therapist will have the beginnings of a treatment plan, although many therapists will wait until the second session to provide a more formalized plan to the client. Some therapists choose to maintain the treatment plan as a reference document for themselves  but do not present it to the client unless requested. Despite the treatment plan, clients should always remain in control of the progression of their therapy. The issue may require more or fewer sessions than originally planned. Family members or friends may be invited to join in certain sessions. Auxiliary resources, such as support groups, may be recommended. Group Talk Therapy Although talk therapy is most commonly performed one on one, group talk therapy can also be effective. In traditional group therapy, the existence of the group plays a key role. A therapeutic milieu is an environment is created within the group that provides structure, support, and a feeling of safety. Within a safe and trusting environment, group members often can express feelings, confront their own negative personality traits, and experiment with behavioral changes. Of course, it takes time and effort to build a sense of community. The popularity of brief therapy has led to a different style of group therapyâ€"the seminar. Time-limited to a single evening or perhaps a weekend, seminars could be seen as group-style individual therapy. These short group sessions use individual cognitive-behavioral therapy methods that are presented to several people at once. The group setting is largely irrelevant, beyond the confidence that may develop from seeing others successfully battle their own issues. What You Need to Know About Psychotherapy

How Bronte Uses Setting to Reflect the Experiences of Her...

Explore how Bronte uses setting to reflect the experiences of her characters. Bronte describes every setting in Jane Eyre in a vast amount of detail, using a number of different language techniques, so as to portray the experiences of her characters, almost subconsciously, to the reader. As well as this, she conveys the moods of her characters using methods such as pathetic fallacy and symbolism, in order to express their emotions indirectly. Furthermore, Bronte uses all of these methods, in addition to a number of scenes containing juxtaposition, as well as the overall structure of her writing style, consistently throughout the book, following Jane through her life. And, transmitting her personal changes and experiences at†¦show more content†¦Furthermore, in order to portray Janes position mentally, Bronte emphasises the fact that Jane is trapped in the room with no escape route. Also, the room to Jane is especially horrible as it is the room where her uncle Mr Reed, breathed his last. Therefore, this reflects Janes own feelings that she is trapped inside a traumatic world that she does not want to exist in. It is also this world that Jane feels is suffocating her personality and rejecting her. It is also in Brontes setting of Lowood that Janes character is unfolded to us. It is here that Jane finds sanctuary in Miss Temple. To get to the secret hideaway of Miss Temples room she must travel through an intricate, dark mass of paths and corridors, so, when she reaches the room it is indeed like a temple, or an oasis of some sort. The comforting atmosphere inside reflectsShow MoreRelated Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre and Charles Dickens Great Expectations1873 Words   |  8 PagesCharlotte Brontes Jane Eyre and Charles DickensGreat Expectations Both Jane Eyre, by Charlotte Brontà «, and Great Expectations, written by Charles Dickens, have many Victorian similarities. Both novels are influenced by the same three elements. The first is the gothic novel, which instilled mystery, suspense, and horror into the work. The second is the romantic poets, which gave the literature liberty, individualism, and nature. The third is the Byronic hero, which consists of the outcast orRead MoreJane Eyre vs. Great Expectatio1869 Words   |  8 PagesBoth Jane Eyre, by Charlotte Brontà «, and Great Expectations, written by Charles Dickens, have many Victorian similarities. Both novels are influenced by the same three elements. The first is the gothic novel, which instilled mystery, suspense, and horror into the work. The second is the romantic poets, which gave the literature liberty, individualism, and nature. The third is the Byronic hero, which consists of the outcast or rebel who is proud and melancholy and seeks a purer life. 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Servant Leadership - 3894 Words

Running Head: SERVANT LEADERSHIP Servant Leadership BUSI 502 – Servant Leadership Professor Kahlib Fischer Rachel Murray Liberty University October 9, 2010 Abstract In the process of interviewing a servant leader, this paper investigates the defining behavior of servant leadership from a practical and philosophical standpoint. There are practical behavioral characteristics that can be uniformly integrated into the business infrastructure that is founded upon Biblical principles yet not used as a pool to proselytize. Through research and group discussion boards, this paper analyzes the institutional applications and the interpersonal relationships†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ The belief that the process of honestly sharing critical challenges/problems with all parties and inviting their ideas and support is often more important than providing solutions. The first honors the potential of others to solve their own problems, whereas solutions from the outside can breed dependence and imply that good answers come from experts, others or above. †¢ Clear on goals and good at pointing the direction. †¢ Servant, helper, and teacher first, then leader. †¢ Takes time to think, rather than just reacting. †¢ Chooses words carefully, so as not to damage those being led. †¢ Uses intuition and foresight. †¢ Sees things whole, sensing relationships and connections, is a systems thinker (Hoyle, 2008). From the group Biblical Integration Paper, it was understood that servant-leadership is not only a gift of purpose that God places in the hearts of His people, but it is also a calling in one’s life to truly touch the lives of others in need. Living a successful life, as a servant-leader is not one that focuses on self-fulfillment, rather it is in seeking a fulfillment that comes from Christ when one pours him/herself out for the sake of others. 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What do we learn about the society of Messina in the play ‘Much Ado About Nothing’ Free Essays

We define society as somewhere where we live, our surroundings, something in which we live, or as the oxford dictionary would say A group of humans broadly distinguished from other groups by mutual interests, participation in characteristic relationships, shared institutions, and a common culture. There are many things that play a part in our society, such as education and leisure pursuits, and this is no different to the Elizabethan times and Messina. Messina is the town in which the play ‘Much Ado About Nothing’ is set. We will write a custom essay sample on What do we learn about the society of Messina in the play ‘Much Ado About Nothing’? or any similar topic only for you Order Now There are many different points in the play that tell us of the many different parts of society in Messina and what the town is like as a whole. However it strikes me as rather odd as to why Shakespeare set this play in a town many people at the time would not have known about. He could have just as easily set it in the hustle and bustle of London, but instead chose Messina. For one Shakespeare chose Messina because of the ease he could use ‘noting’. He could include it in his play and the audience would know it suited Messina, this is because like London, Messina is a very busy town, and in towns like that news spreads fast, another reason is that because many in Messina are not as well off as others, people will want to know things that they can use against others, a way of getting money, and a very quick way. Other reason why Shakespeare has chosen Messina is that some because they suit the play better, and some because they suit him better. Firstly, Messina is a very hurly burly seaport town, which was in turn a lot like London, however Shakespeare would have also chose it because he could have created humour easier. He could mock the public figures, and the royalty, and even mock the Spanish for losing to England (Messina was part of the Spanish empire, and not too long before had the English defeated the Spanish – the Spanish Armada) without fear of anything, whereas if he would have done this in England he could have been put up for treason. Despite him setting the play in Messina, which is a fairly unknown place to most of the audience, he still gets the audience to associate with certain characters in the play. The most noticeable character in the play, and the one most Elizabethans could have associated with would have been the two watches, Dogberry and Verges. This would have been because watches like these two would have also been around in London, but not quite so idiotic. All of these reasons are very important in the play and the image of the society of Messina we receive from the play. Noting is all the way through the play however it is in some cases purposely done, the most obvious is when Don Pedro, Leonato and Caudio are playing a trick on Benedick into thinking that Beatrice loves him â€Å"O ay, stalk on, stalk on, the fowl site – I never think that lady would have loved any man† Act 2 Scene 5 Line 89-90 (The conversion continues from line 86to line 206) Employment is a major contributing factor to any town’s society. In Messina I get the feeling most are employed on the port, something in which the town was famous for. I have also picked up the idea that most in the town are working class, however the main characters in the play tend to be higher class. Leonato is the governor of Messina, however he is the not the highest ranked person in the play. Leonato is a wealthy man, with one daughter, Hero. I get the idea he is the wealthiest person in Messina, with Antonio close behind. However, when Don Pedro, Don John and Claudio enter they give us a different insight into employment in Messina. I feel that no one in Messina is actually involved in war, as these three are congratulated when they arrive home. Thus showing that it was rare to have people in Messina fighting in Battle. Don Pedro is royalty, and is also a very wealthy man. He has received all his money from inheritance and has only ever worked with the army, fighting in battles. Dogberry is a typical working class man, and I ame shown this as he is in the job of watch at Leonato’s castle. A very poorly paid, boring job that anyone can easily qualify for. As we know many Messinians do not appear to be tied down with work, and have a very active social life. They often like to dance and sing, which is a very often occurrence in the Elizabethan days. I find out about a masked ball that many of the town members go to, and it appears that they are all happily enjoying the event. This seems like it is a regular occurrence in the town that everyone happily enjoys. It is also an excellent place for ‘noting’ to go on. It is also a very important part in the play as this is where most noting can go on, but the twit is that no one knows who each other is, it creates the theme of illusion and deception as we find out when Beatrice is talking to a ‘masked chum’ but we all know the it is really Benedick. Why, he is the Prince’s Jester, a very dull fool; onlhis gift is devising impossible slanders. None but libertines delight in him, and the commendation is not in his wit, but in his villainy; for he both pleases men and angers them, and then they laugh at him and beat him. I am sure he is in the fleet; I would he had boarded me† Act 2 Scene 1 Line 120-126 (The conversation carries on from line 120 to 1 37) The behaviour of people on the town seems to be on the whole very good. However that is the first impression, we actually see how Messina is quite corrupt with many sneaky villains. Firstly though I feel that the Messinians treat outsiders very well, especially royalty, as we see from the greeting Don Pedro, Don John and Claudio receive. â€Å"Never came trouble to my house in the likeness of your grace. For trouble being gone, comfornt should remain, but when you depart from me, sorrow abides and happiness takes his leave† Act 1 Scene 1 Line 86-89 Leonato pays the royalty much respect and shows them utmost formality. The Messinians make everything go up in standard, and this shows signs of them going out of their way to the arrival of the royalty. Also the introduction to everyone in Act 1 Scene 1 is very long, it goes on from lines 83 to 141 until everyone is introduced to each other. However there is a much more corrupt side to the town of Messina, as we find out later in the play, anyone will be two faced and betray people if it involves a little money. The evil on comes into the play when Don John arrives as he is the main villain in the play, and we find out how he is the brains behind most of the plots, but never wishes to get his hands dirty. â€Å"Therefore I have earned of Don John a thousand ducats† Act 3 Scene 3 Line 105-6 This shows us how Don John is happy to give money away as it gets the evil deed done but also leaves him out of the equation when someone is receiving the blame. Men and women both play major roles in this play, however are treated very differently. Men are obviously the superior gender in this play, which is very normal for the time this play was performed. The man they are either married to or a father and they literally own the women. When the wedding day comes along they father of the daughter will pass her to the husband to now ‘look after’. â€Å"Give me this maid your daughter? Act 4 Scene 1 Line 23 â€Å"As freely son as God did give her me† Act 4 Scene 1 Line 24 Claudio speaks of Hero as if Leonato owns her, and then Leonato is confirming that the ownership of Hero is changing from himself to Claudio. They also seem to have other attitude towards love and marriage. They seem to abide by arranged marriages, however some obviously don’t. Most of the younger characters in the play are single, however are chasing love but just cannot find it. If they are married they have to be very similar, as in from the same background, with the same upbringing. They also deem it very important for a woman to be unchased before her wedding day, as this is the best thing a father can offer. I can tell this as when Leonato finds out hero is ‘unchased’ then the bursts into a fit of rage â€Å"Wherefore? Why, doth not every earthly thing, Cry shame upon her? Could she here deny, Do not live Hero, do not open thine eyes† Act 4 Scene 1 Line 118 – 120) (This enragement carries on from line 118 to 141) The social status also gives us an excellent insight to the society of Messina. Someone like Benedick or Don Pedro, both very clever, typically shows us someone from the upper class. They both have a good education, very well spoken and also very witty. â€Å"Then is courtesy a turncoat. But it is certain I am loved of all ladies, only you excepted, and I would I could not find in my heart that I had a hard heart, for truly I love none. † Act 1 Scene 1 Lines 109-112 This shows how witty and quick-fired Benedick is when speaking with Beatrice from lines 109 to 130 in Act 1 Scene 1 of the play. However the lower and working class is a completely different story. The character from which we receive most information about the working class is Dogberry, for one his name is very well chosen as Dogberry meant Dog Rose, this is a very common rose, and is purposely chosen to suit his class in the play. However we also learn about his class through his lines in the play. â€Å"Your are thought here to be the most senseless and fit man for the constable of watch†¦ † Act 3 Scene 3 Line 21-23 We can see form his spoken language he is also very common, he tries to be witty in the play, but is always making mistakes, by saying the wrong word, like in this extract where he says â€Å"senseless† instead of sensible. This is a very effective way of creating humour but also an effective way in showing us to the social background of this character. â€Å"She’s but the sign of semblance of her honour Behold how like a maid she blushes here! † Act 4 Scene 1 Lines 31-32 This is the part in which we find out Hero is not a Virgin. Claudio describes the blushes of guilt and nothing to do with her modesty. However Leonato does not follow, and misunderstands what Claudio has said to him. â€Å"Dear my lord, if you not in your own proof Have vanquished the resistance of her youth, And made defeat of her virginity-† Act 4 Scene 1 Lines 44-46 He only thinks Claudio is confessing that they have had sex, and not Hero with another man. Upon this misunderstanding Claudio has to explain himself once more, and then Leonato realises what he is saying. Instead of jumping to the rescue of his daughter, he chooses to disown her, by slapping her and yelling at her on her wedding day. Proving to the audience how chastity of your daughter was a very important thing in Messina. To conclude, I feel we learn a lot about the society of Messina in this play. However Shakespeare does not put it straight in front of you, he hides it behind his writing, and the characters lines. We learn of all the different social statuses in Messina and also the superiority of the male gender. I feel the most striking thing about Messina though, is how corrupt it is. You get the impression that it is a very friendly, peaceful town, however as we delve further into the play we find out the truth. The audience watching this would have been able to recognise many people and parts in this play, because it is so much like Elizabethan England at the time this was performed. Many families suffered from the divide on employment and social status, and many families also saw the chastity of their daughter the most important thing a father could offer, however the thing they would most be able to associate with would have been Dogberry and Verges. The watches would have been a very strong figure in England, and would be instantly recognisable from the moment they stepped on stage and one that would be guaranteed to raise a lot of laughs in the crowd. How to cite What do we learn about the society of Messina in the play ‘Much Ado About Nothing’?, Papers

Meat Eaters vs Vegetarians free essay sample

Meats have more flavors than vegetables; this is because meats contains juices and are cook with different spices that have strong flavors. Some of these flavors are parsley, basil, garlic, salt, pepper, Worcestershire sauce etc. We are not telling that vegetarians don’t eat flavored food but the reality is that meat has lots of more flavors. In terms of taste, it depends on each people for example; vegetarians will say that their food taste better and the same with the meat eaters. But we look for information from the experts and Dr. Robert Madda in his internet page title â€Å"Meat Vegetables on the HCG Diet† certifies that our statement it’s true, meat has more flavors and taste better. The vegetarians eat healthier because of meat having saturated fat and high cholesterol. Meat eaters have more risk of having diseases and health problems such as heart attack or stroke from the vegetarians. Some studies show that vegetarians have less opportunities of having cancer. Meat can stay in your body up to 7 years and vegetable can be easy eliminated from the body. Some vegetarians are vegetarians because they are animal activist. Animal activist are those people that have compassion and want to end the mistreating and the cruelty of the animals. Some meats are not healthy because some suppliers inject chemicals and preservative so it could last longer. Vegetarians also have some health risk because chicken and fish have many different bacteria. Some studies tell that they have more bacteria than a toilet. Salmonella is a popular bacterium that you can find in chicken and fish. Salmonella is a bacterium that attacks intestine and blood stream. Some examples of its effects are diarrhea, fever and give you intense pain. Salmonella is not a deadly disease but you will feel like if you where going to die due to the huge pain. When it comes to food there is going to be always some problem because a bacterium, cholesterol, fats etc. As known meat eaters and vegetarians have typical foods. Meat eaters like every type of meat here are some example of different types of meats; steaks, cheeseburger, t-bone, fried steak, ham, pork, bacon, ribs, prime rib, lamb, veal etc. Meat eater usually like to have nest to the meat as a side order mash potatoes, baked potatoes, rice and beans, pasta and some times vegetables and salad. Our favorite plate would be a nice steak with baked potatoes, specifically a filet mignon there is nothing better. Vegetarian people also eat great food for example; they eat fish like red snapper, maji maji, grouper, tilapia, salmon etc. Also they eat chicken, salads and vegetables; for the vegetarian people a familiar plate that they eat is baked chicken with caesar salad. This vegetarian diet is very strict a difficult to follow. Recently vegetarian population is growing, a few years ago only 3. 2% of the population was on the vegetarian diet. Today according to vegetariantimes. om 10% of the American populations are vegetarian. But a study show that 5. 2 % of the population are interested in the vegetarian diet. A 59% of the vegetarian populations are woman and the average age of vegetarian people is 30. In the other side meat eaters are better known as carnivore. Carnivore is the same as meat eaters and this term is also used in animals. For example we can say that the lion is a carnivore animal. This means that when you are carnivore you depend mainly of the meat diet. Meat eaters also have can find diseases in the food. High blood pressure, diabetes, obesity etc. re some examples of diseases. We as carnivores recommend to all the others meat eaters that these diseases are not a joke and they should do go to the doctor at least twice in a year. But a the same time eating meat give you high quality proteins an it also require all the amino acid that your body needs. Meat contains high iron compare to plant and vegetable. It’s recommended to eat meat but in moderated quantities, also you should avoid eating bacon and salami because they are very high in fats. In conclusion meat eaters and vegetarians are extremely different. We can say that they taste different and have different flavor. The meat is the tastiest but the vegetarians are healthier. We are meat eaters because our island is full with flavors and we love to eat great food with great flavor. As meat eaters we respect the entire vegetarian community and we understand the reason of being one. At the same time we think that everyone needs to have at least a minor portion of meat because all the proteins and the iron that you will not find in a vegetarian plate. For us there is nothing like a huge plate of meat after work or after doing sport to recharge all the batteries. References Benefits Of Eating Meat. (n. d. ). Sikh Philosophy Network. Retrieved November 6, 2011, from http://www. sikhphilosophy. net/sikh-youth/14321-benefits-of-eating-meat. html Meat Eaters Vs. Vegetarians | Healthmad. (n. d. ). Healthmad. Retrieved November 6, 2011, from http://healthmad. com/health/meat-eaters-vs-vegetarians/ Smith, B. (n. d. ). What Is Salmonella And What Are Its Effects? | InjuryBoard Atlanta. Injury Board Atlanta | Georgia Personal Injury Attorney. Retrieved November 6, 2011, from http://atlanta. injuryboard. om/defective-and-dangerous-products/what-is-salmonella-and-what-are-its-effects. aspx? googleid=212314 What is the Difference Between Meat Eaters VS Vegetarians? | Health Related Articles. (n. d. ). Health Related Articles | Everything you want to know about your Health. Retrieved November 6, 2011, from http://www. healthforworld. com/what-is-the-difference-between-meat-eaters-vs-vegetarians life. , t. w. (n. d. ). Vegetarian vs Meat eaters Vegetariani sm In America . Vegetarian Times Great Food, Good Health, Smart Living. Retrieved November 6, 2011, from http://www. vegetariantimes. com/features

Social Cognition Essay Example

Social Cognition Essay Social cognition is advancement within social psychology that grew out of the realization that people use the same mental architecture when perceiving and thinking about other people as they do when perceiving and thinking about objects. The field of social cognition investigates the ways people perceive, interact with, and influence each other, studying specific topics such as person perception, group prejudice and stereotyping, personal relationships, group processes, persuasion, and social influence. Person may share some important social attributes with each other, such as race, gender, or political affiliation. These are among many factors that distinguish people and objects that must be considered when attempting to apply our understanding of basic cognitive processes to social judgment. The present paper attempts to define social cognition from different viewpoint and provides argumentative, credible details of areas where social cognition can be functional. Paper also elabora tes the future research basis of this sub-field of social psychology. Social cognition is a development of social psychology- One of the most important developments in social psychology in the last 25 years has been social cognition, as both a conceptual and a methodological approach to social psychological topics. Also without doubt, one of the key figures in the emergence and development of that approach has been Bob Wyer (Alan J. Lambert, 2003; pg- 25). Social cognition is the conceptual orientation that has emerged from the information-processing perspective in cognitive psychology. This approach is based on the conviction that constructs relevant to cognitive representation and process are fundamental to understanding all human responses, regardless of whether those responses are social or non-social in nature (Thomas K. Srull, 1994). Social cognition borrows many ideas and themes from cognitive psychology, but is unique because of the interest in combining these themes to the study of people in social settings.   The focus of social cognition is precisely on the cognitive mechanisms that mediate judgments and behavior. The sequence of these operations is usually assumed to be divisible into several component-processing stages (Thomas K. Srull author, Robert S. Wyer Jr., 1989; pg-2). We will write a custom essay sample on Social Cognition specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Social Cognition specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Social Cognition specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Basically, Social cognition is the study of how people process social information, especially its encoding, storage, retrieval, and application to social situations. When related schemas are activated, inferences beyond the information given in a particular social situation may influence thinking and social behavior, regardless of whether those inferences are accurate or not. Two processes that increase the accessibility of schemas are salience and priming. For example, if there is one female in a group of seven males, female gender schemas may be more accessible and influence the group’s thinking and behavior toward the female group member. Priming refers to any experiences immediately prior to a situation that caused a schema to be more accessible. For example watching a scary movie at a theatre late at night might increase the accessibility of frightening schemas that affect a person’s perception of shadows and background noises as potential threats. Social cognition has its roots in social psychology: This attempts to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others (Allport, 1985, pg-3). It studies the individual within a social or cultural context and focuses on how people perceive and interpret information they generate themselves (intrapersonal) and from others (interpersonal) (Sternberg, 1994). Albert Bandura (1986) initially studied learning from a behavioral perspective (Bandura, 1965), while Jerome Bruner (1990) initially studied learning from a cognitive perspective (Bruner, 1957). Festingers (1957) cognitive-dissonance theory, Bems (1972) self-perception theory (see Greenwald, 1975), and Weiners (1985) attribution theory are additional examples of how the perspective of social cognition has been applied to the study of the learning process. A major implication of this perspective is that effective teaching must be ground ed in an appropriate social environment (Hannafin, 1997). In social cognition research, the schema concept originally derives from a Gestalt, configural approach to perception. For example, an approach that anticipated the schema concept, Asch (1946), described a configural model of how people form impressions of others, given a list of personality traits. He posited that the traits become organized around a central trait that determines the perceived root of the personality. The whole system of relations among the traits determines their meaning as a whole, especially with regard to a central or dominant trait. A person described as warm, practical, and industrious seems quite different from someone described as cold, practical, and industrious. One retrospective interpretation of such differences is that the two configurations evoke different schemata (Richard R. Lau, 1986; pg-14) Opponents of Social cognition comment that it is a particular approach in social psychology that puts heavy emphasis on how we represent social knowledge and mentally process social information. For example, to explain why people conform to a majority, or obey an authority figure, do you really need to bring in social cognitions? Situational factors and forces can often have an overwhelming influence on behavior, and hence substantially reduce the importance of social cognitions (Donald C. Pennington, 200; pg-7). The typical social cognition direct study can not provide evidence for accuracy, because the stimuli used are necessarily ambiguous. Recently, however, interest in the direct study of accuracy has remerged (Kruglanski, 1989). In contrast, studies of performance appraisal in organizational psychology typically have been concerned first and foremost with accuracy. This is obviously because performance ratings are used for decision making, with real impact on the welfare of individuals and organizations (Thomas K. Srull, 1994; pg-343). Social psychologists who research into social cognition commonly investigate such questions as: What caused a person to behave in a particular way? Why does somebody laugh in one social situation and behave in an unfriendly way in another situation? How do we mentally represent what we know about another person or group of people? How does belonging to a social group affect how we behave to others who are members of the same group, and others who are not group members? Why do individuals and groups of people engage in discrimination and conflict with other groups of people? How can prejudice and conflict between people be reduced? (Donald C. Pennington, 200; pg-2). Individual Variation in social cognition- Most of the social cognition literature has dealt with consensual schemata, that is, knowledge structures that people are expected to share. As a consequence, relatively little attention has been devoted to the individual differences that may characterize the content, structure, and use of particular schemata (major exceptions to this include, Fiske Kinder, 1981; Fiske, Kinder, Larter, 1983; Lau, Coulam, Sears, 1983; H. Markus, 1977). However, such individual differences are likely to have a substantial impact on how people judge political candidates. Therefore, we consider three distinct, though related, sources of such variation: schema accessibility, availability, and development. As noted previously, schema accessibility is determined by a variety of factors (i.e. expectations, motivations, and salience) that may differ individually as well as contextually (Higgins King, 1981). For example, in anticipation of an ideological clash at a candidate debate, some voters ideological schemata might become more accessible; others may view the confrontation as a partisan one, and consequently, their party schemata might become more accessible. Similarly, variations in the motivations might generally influence the accessibility of schemata. For example, those voters who are highly involved in the campaign and who care about the outcome of the election should have more readily accessible political schemata and thus should be more capable of making candidate inferences (Richard R. Lau, 1986; pg-136). The role of Social cognition is influential in various fields of psychology throughout the lifespan. Social cognition and child development- It is of interest to discover how children develop as attributors and to plot the patterns that they show. Children develop an awareness of causality quite early in their life; for example, Frye (1991) demonstrated that 4 to 8 month-olds were able to discriminate between spatial events (such as objects hitting one another) which were causally related and those which were not. By the age of 3 to 4 years children are conscious of the consequences and causes of their own actions and show motivation in controlling outcomes (Schneider and Unzer, 1992). Understanding of physical causality develops early in life, but applying causality in the social world is more complex. Evidence for the use of the discounting principle in childhood seems to be mixed, and there seems to be a tendency for younger children to use the principle for themselves, but not when explaining the behavior of others (Kassin and Pryor, 1985). Miller and Aloise (1989) found that yo unger children, 4 to 5 year-olds, used the discounting principle when an external cause was made highly salient. Fundamental attribution error is the pervasive tendency in adults of attributing causes to internal, stable, dispositions rather than external, situational factors. In children this seems to be acquired rather than being automatic, with evidence that the tendency in children is more towards external attributions as the norm (Fiske and Taylor, 1991. Over the period of 5-13 years it seems that children slowly learn to change their attention from whether the task is easy or difficult in relation to consequent success or failure, to internal attributions. Young children do not distinguish between effort and ability, assuming that success at a difficult task reflects being intelligent. By mid-childhood a relationship is seen between effort, ability and successful outcome (Nesdale and Pope, 1985). As children become teenagers the links between effort and ability and success or failure at school are firmly established (Donald C. Pennington, 200; pg-129). Social cognition and health psychology- Health psychology concerns real-world phenomena, and hence provides a meaningful context in which to study the cognitions and behaviors of individuals. Indeed, such contexts often have life or death consequences for the individual, such as the experience of coronary disease, cancer, or AIDS (Linville et al., 1993). Health psychology focuses on topics include emotions, motivation, goals, and social relationships. An example is the context of AIDS, where individuals reactions to risk factor information may affect subsequent health-relevant behaviors involving others. The primary concern of research of health psychologists, endeavors is often the prediction and understanding of actual behavior. Therefore, it affords the social cognition researcher an excellent context in which to develop and test theories that lead to the under- standing of the cognition-behavior link. Finally, health psychology generally subscribes to a systems approach in the fo rm of the bio-psychosocial model of health and illness (Schwartz, 1982; Taylor, 1991). This model values the interchange among social, psychological, and biological levels of human functioning as they contribute to health and illness. For example, studies of lifestyle change or adherence to complex medical regimens may involve an understanding of the impact of physiological risk factors, psychological reactions, and social values or practices as they impact on an individuals behavior (Thomas K. Srull, 1994). Critics of social cognition research have argued that much work in this area is artificial, entailing a focus that has, in the past, excluded relevant social variables such as affect and interpersonal relationships. In addition, critics have complained that social cognition often fails to demonstrate effects on real socially relevant behaviors (Martin Clark, 1990). Materialism as Social Cognition- Representation on schema theory and the work of Kelly (1955), we propose that materialists not only perceive people in terms of possessions, but they use these criteria as super ordinate constructs when framing stimuli for social-cognition (James M. Hunt, 1996; Pg-65). Recent work within social cognition- It suggests that unconscious mental processes play a dominant role in the judgments and actions of individuals. This stands in stark contrast with psychological theories that describe human action as typically caused by conscious intentions, and also conflicts with widely held beliefs concerning moral accountability. One of the most radical claims regarding social cognition is that we are unaware of the social attitudes that give rise to our judgments and behaviors (Banaji, 2001; Gaertner Dovidio, 1986; Greenwald, McGhee, Schwartz, 1998; Greenwald Banaji, 1995). Burgh and Chartrand (1999) proposed that most of a person’s everyday life is determined not by their conscious intentions and deliberate choices but by mental processes that are put into motion by features of the environment and that operate outside of conscious awareness and guidance. Indeed, many social psychologists have come to the conclusion that conscious processes play onl y a minimal role in human thought and behavior. Humans are exceedingly social animals, but the neural underpinnings of social cognition and behavior are not well understood. Studies in humans and other primates have pointed to several structures that play a key role in guiding social behaviors: the amygdala, ventromedial frontal cortices, and right somatosensory-related cortex, among others. These structures appear to mediate between perceptual representations of socially relevant stimuli, such as the sight of conspecifics, and retrieval of knowledge (or elicitation of behaviors) that such stimuli can trigger. Some aspects of psychological processes that promote social behavior (such as face recognition) may be innate. Studies have shown that newborn babies, younger than one hour old can selectively recognize and respond to faces, while people with some developmental disorders such as autism or Williams syndrome may show differences in social interaction and social communication when compared to their unaffected peers. Social Cognition in Schizophrenia may be seen: There is considerable overlap between schizophrenia symptom dimensions, particularly between negative symptoms such as affective flattening and alogia and social cognition. The MSP is performing ongoing research on the phenomenology of deficits in social cognition, including impairment in affect recognition, theory of mind, and insight (Kennedy, A., Barres, P., Wood, A.E., Kilzieh, N., Tapp, A.2004). Major research interests in Social Cognition: Through the development of new techniques for more directly investigating cognitive processes, research began to focus on a variety of new questions. For example, researchers could explicitly study the acquisition of social information and the biases in its en- coding and interpretation. These developments had an immediate impact on the nature of theory and research on both impression formation (Hastieetal, 1980) and stereotyping (Hamilton, 1981). There has been much recent interest in the links between social cognition and brain function, particularly as neuropsychological studies have shown that brain injury (particularly to the frontal lobes) can adversely affect social judgments and interaction. The case of Phineas Gage was an early and influential example of this finding. Many researchers have assumed that a person’s individual representation of the self influences his or her behavior and judgments in various domains. One dimension of self-aspects is inherent to most of the proposed theories. It is the extent to which the self is defined either by reference to its unique and independent features (e.g. abstract traits) or by reference to socially shared aspects that stress the interdependence with others (e.g. group memberships). Another research field of interest is the cognitive functioning of stereotypes. Researchers engaged in investigating how gender stereotypes influence the attribution of leadership competence. Many previous studies have shown that leadership competence is more closely associated with the masculine than with the feminine stereotype. Social cognition is not a content area, but rather is an approach to understanding social psychology. It is a level of analysis that aims to understand social psychological phenomena by investigating the cognitive processes that underlie them.   As reviewed above, the major concerns of the approach are the processes involved in the perception, judgment, and memory of social stimuli; the effects of social and affective factors on information processing; and the behavioral and interpersonal consequences of cognitive processes. The past decade of research in social cognition has witnessed many advances in the understanding of the cognitive representation of social information. At the same time, it has begun to reveal potentially serious limitations to the generalize ability of the empirical findings that have emerged and the theoretical formulations developed to account for them. These limitations may be due, in large part, to the paradigms that have been employed.

Five Ways to Ace Your Video Interview

Five Ways to Ace Your Video Interview An increase in job candidates willing to relocate for jobs, the high cost of shuttling them back and forth for interviews, and advancements in digital technology have resulted in a perfect storm of opportunity in the job hunting world: the video interview. While video interviews share the same ultimate goal as face-to-face interviews, there are some extra things to think about before getting ready for your close-up. Read on to learn five ways to make the very best impression during your video interview. 1. Set the SceneWhile you may be conducting the interview from your living room sofa, it’s essential to present yourself and your surroundings in the most professional way. Choose a bright, clean location, and be careful in rooms with lots of windows as these can cause backlighting and shadows.Eliminate clutter and annoying background noises, silence your phone, and close all irrelevant windows on your computer. Distractions not only disrupt your attention, but also the attenti on of your interviewer.Also, make sure you have access to a power source and charger: video is quick to drain computer batteries, and running out during an interview shows poor planning.2. Dress All Parts For the PartMany people assume that because interviewers only see them from the waist up, it’s acceptable to wear comfy clothing on the bottom along with your professional top. However, skip the inclination to dress down, and instead dress to impress with a top-to-bottom look. Not only will you feel more professional, but on the off chance you have to get up to retrieve a file or document, you won’t risk exposing your ratty old sweatpants.3. Do a â€Å"Test Run†Take time in advance to do a â€Å"test run† at the same location and time of day as your impending interview. Before the call, test your connection and voice/microphone. If possible, invest in a good pair of headphones: they can prevent connection problems as well as trim down on sound disruption .For best results, record a test call to see how you present on camera, and to determine any necessary adjustments or improvements.And don’t forget: you can even experiment with your camera positioning to present yourself in the most flattering way. Most people find that keeping the camera at eye level is the most attractive angle.4. Eye Contact is KeyWhile eye contact is important in any social or professional situation, it’s a particular challenge during the video interview. Why? Because the temptation is strong to watch yourself on the screen, instead of looking directly at the camera. This not only makes you look unfocused, but can be unsettling to the interviewer. Keep in mind that you’re not directly addressing the screen, but the camera above your screen. Practice this during your test run.5. Smile Early and OftenMeeting with a person face-to-face has a different â€Å"feel,† than conducting a video interview. While the connection can seem distant and disconnected, it is still extremely important to present yourself as a friendly, likable person. After all, most employers today are looking for soft skills, and failure to show off your personable side during a video interview can quickly remove you from the running.While participating in video interviews can feel strange or stressful, they’re increasingly part of the job hunt experience. Taking time to prepare yourself and become accustomed to the process can set you up for success. And remember: the ultimate goal is to enhance the hiring process and help you find the job of your dreams, so look at each video opportunity not as an obstacle, but as an opportunity.